Chapter 51: Pompey the Great (2)
Chapter 51: Pompey the Great (2)
After his defeat at Cyzicus, Mithridates had no choice but to retreat.
“Your Majesty, you must flee to Armenia as soon as possible. The Romans are moving faster than we expected.”
“I know!”
Mithridates planned to use the same strategy he had employed after his previous loss to Lucullus. The eastern region of Pontus was rugged and mountainous, which had deterred Lucullus from advancing directly through it. Mithridates hoped Pompey would be similarly reluctant to navigate the difficult terrain.
However, Pompey had anticipated Lucullus’s failure and had taken precautions. He had sent one of his legions to block the eastern route, cutting off Mithridates’ escape path. With the road to the east blocked, Mithridates was forced to take a longer route to Armenia.
The situation was worse than Mithridates had anticipated. Rebuilding his forces after numerous defeats proved difficult. Loyalty was hard to come by when the king’s record was marred by constant failure. His resources were dwindling.
“Hehehe…”
Out of the 33,000 troops he had managed to gather, only 5,000 remained. Even some of the cavalry had deserted him, despite his offer of a substantial reward.
The desertion of his cavalry was a situation Mithridates had only imagined. He ordered a retreat but struggled to accept the reality of his situation.
“The last hope is the pirates… If they cut off the supply lines, there might still be a chance.”
“Your Majesty, didn’t you hear? The pirates were wiped out by Pompey.”
“Ha! That’s nonsense.”
Mithridates had heard rumors that Pompey had eradicated the pirates across the Mediterranean in just 89 days, but he found it implausible. It would take more than 89 days just to navigate the Mediterranean by sea. How could all the pirates have been destroyed in such a short time?
“The Romans are trying to confuse us with false information and are cutting off all communication from the pirates,” Mithridates insisted.
“That could be true,” his advisor conceded.
“Yes. That’s why I secretly sent a messenger to Cilicia. I will decide on our next strategy based on his report.”
However, reality proved more harsh than Mithridates had hoped. An urgent report from the messenger arrived while Mithridates was en route.
“Your Majesty! The pirates in Cilicia have already been eradicated. Moreover, most of the pirates are now living as farmers after receiving land from Pompey…”
“What!”
Mithridates felt as if he had been struck on the head with a blunt object.
“That’s impossible… They really annihilated all the pirates in the Mediterranean in just 89 days? How?”
Mithridates’ sense of reality and understanding failed to keep up with the situation. Losing in battle seemed unreal to him, and he couldn’t accept his current predicament.
Something must be wrong. The gods must have made a mistake. This war should not have turned out like this. There had to be some error or distortion in the information.
“Your Majesty! We need to speed up our retreat. We don’t know when the Romans might catch up with us!”
“Yes… Let’s go… To Armenia.”
Mithridates spoke in a weak, subdued voice.
The Pontic army moved hastily, lacking direction. Some soldiers, seeing no hope, deserted once again. Mithridates paid no heed to them. They were merely soldiers who would have been defeated in battle anyway. Their desertion didn’t matter.
He just wished that this nightmare would end soon.
The Roman army, trailing behind, moved at a leisurely pace. They took their time to reorganize their legions and praised their soldiers for their achievements.
Spartacus, who had made a significant contribution by breaking through the enemy’s center and saving the lives of seven comrades, received a civic crown. This crown, made of oak leaves and branches, was the second highest honor a Roman soldier could receive.
Marcus was thrilled for Spartacus as if the honor were his own. He even sent a letter to Rome to have a silver crown made for preservation.
Once the medals were awarded and the wounded tended to, the Roman army resumed their movement.
Pompey realized that physically capturing Mithridates would be nearly impossible given the vastness of the eastern region. So, he decided from the beginning not to focus on capturing Mithridates.
If it happened, it would be a bonus, but if not, it didn’t matter. Instead, Pompey aimed to issue a diplomatic death sentence to Mithridates, rather than pursuing him physically.
Mithridates managed to persist despite his defeats due to his alliance with Armenia. If that alliance were severed, Mithridates would be left powerless, like a kite with a broken string.
To neutralize Armenia, Pompey aimed to sway Parthia, which was positioned to the east of Armenia. He had already sent an envoy to Parthia while marching towards Cyzicus.
Lucullus, Pompey’s predecessor, had also attempted to secure an alliance with Parthia when he pushed against Armenia but was unsuccessful. At that time, Parthia was focused on internal consolidation and was uninterested in the conflict between Rome and Pontus. Moreover, Lucullus, with only 30,000 troops, was not seen as a reliable partner.
Pompey, however, had significant advantages over Lucullus. With over 60,000 troops and a remarkable achievement of pacifying the Mediterranean in under three months, Pompey’s accomplishments impressed Parthia. This report reached the Parthian royal court and made them reconsider their stance.
Pompey proposed a straightforward and non-burdensome alliance. He offered that:
“Rome, the Senate, and its citizens recognize Parthia under Phraates III as the legitimate ruler of Mesopotamia. In return, Parthia acknowledges Rome’s sovereignty over its territories. The boundary between our two nations will be the Euphrates River, and we will sign a non-aggression treaty.”
Although similar to Lucullus’s offer, Pompey’s proposal felt more appealing. He did not ask Parthia to restrain Armenia or any other burdensome terms; he merely sought an alliance and recognition.
Mithridates also sought to forge an alliance with Parthia and encouraged active resistance against Rome. Phraates III had to choose between aligning with the faltering Hellenistic kingdom of Pontus or with Rome.
After careful consideration, Parthia decided it had no reason to support a nearly defeated Hellenistic power and opted to align with Rome. The internal power struggles within Parthia further influenced this decision.
It was clear which option was more appealing: one side asking them to mobilize their army and the other simply asking them to remain passive.
Parthia officially announced its alliance with Rome, which Rome eagerly publicized.
This development left Armenia in a precarious position. Pompey advanced his army slowly toward Armenia’s border, deliberately applying pressure without starting an immediate conflict or issuing an ultimatum. By stationing over 60,000 troops at the border, he exerted a silent but potent threat.
Unlike before, time was now on Pompey’s side.
The Armenian nobles were deeply concerned about being encircled by both Parthia and Rome. The prospect of an agreement between these two powers to divide and occupy Armenia was a real threat. Given their history of conflict with Parthia, and the new alliance with Rome, Armenia feared annihilation.
Tigranes II was openly criticized by the nobles for his alliance with Mithridates, which they viewed as driven by personal ambition. Even a prince, fearing the kingdom’s destruction, rebelled and sent an envoy to Pompey, offering an alliance if Pompey supported him.
Pompey, however, did not rush into action. He waited calmly, and his patience proved wise. Tigranes II’s authority was indeed under threat, but the rebellion was not yet strong enough to overthrow him.
Nevertheless, Tigranes II faced immense pressure. He suppressed the rebellion but knew it could recur at any time. Daily complaints from his subordinates added to his distress:
“Your Majesty! A war with Rome is unthinkable! It’s a matter of life and death for Armenia!”
“Pompey’s forces are twice as large and stronger than Lucullus’!”
“Even Parthia has allied with Rome. Haven’t we already done enough for Mithridates?”
Tigranes’ attempts to justify his stance sounded increasingly hollow. He understood that being a vassal was far preferable to losing his kingdom. Yet, his pride prevented him from making the necessary decision.
Mithridates had to admit that he had been outmaneuvered by the Roman army from start to finish. Although he had never seen him in person, he felt a deep fear of the Roman commander, Pompey. Lucullus had been a formidable adversary, but Pompey felt different.
Mithridates did not believe he could win a battle against Pompey, just as he had with Lucullus. But Pompey had deprived him of even the chance to fight, making him feel as though his hands and feet were tied, leaving him with no option but to surrender.
He stared at the ground in silence for a long time before calling his secretary.
“Send an envoy to the Roman army. I will visit Pompey personally to negotiate a peace treaty.”
For a king to visit an enemy general in person was essentially an act of surrender—a significant humiliation. Nevertheless, his subordinates supported his decision, eager to avoid direct humiliation and prioritize survival.
“It is a wise decision, Your Majesty!”
“You will be remembered as a wise and benevolent ruler who prioritized the nation’s interest!”
The flattery only twisted Tigranes’ stomach further. Without a word, he left his throne and went to his bedroom. The servants, relieved to have maintained their positions, breathed a sigh of relief.
Pompey gladly accepted the proposal to meet and sign a treaty. However, before his reply even arrived, Tigranes had put a substantial bounty on Mithridates—a sign of Armenia’s desperation.
Mithridates, who had planned to invade Armenia, was forced to head north instead. Even in Colchis, near the western coast of the Black Sea, he found no safety as Pompey had anticipated his move and deployed a navy to monitor the area. Ultimately, Mithridates had no choice but to hide in the harsh Caucasus Mountains—a brutal escape for a 66-year-old man.
Declaring Mithridates politically dead, Pompey had once again demonstrated his strategic mastery. He had subdued Pontus and Armenia with a single battle, and the negotiations with Mithridates went exactly as planned, with no surprises.
As Tigranes arrived to sign the treaty, Pompey greeted him from a chair resembling a throne. Marcus stood behind Pompey, witnessing the historic event. Tigranes, adorned with a splendid eastern crown, dismounted his horse and walked slowly toward Pompey. Handing his golden sword to his guard, he approached Pompey with trembling lips, struggling to balance his humiliation with his desire to remember who had brought him to this point.
Finally, Tigranes knelt and removed his crown—an act in the east signifying defeat. Marcus stepped forward to read aloud Tigranes’ identity from a parchment:
“Tigranes II, a descendant of the Artaxiad dynasty and king of Armenia, ally of Mithridates VI, and claimant to the rule of Seleucus. Do you accept his surrender?”
Pompey smiled and rose from his seat. He approached Tigranes, returned his crown, and helped him stand.
“I gladly accept your surrender. If Armenia agrees to my terms, there will be no further bloodshed between us.”
“We are ready to accept any terms…”
“A wise decision. Then I will present my demands.”
Pompey signaled Marcus, who handed a parchment to Tigranes. The terms were:
The proposal was painful to see in writing, even if expected. The total compensation amounted to 160 million sesterces when combining items I and II—an enormous sum for any eastern dynasty. Items III and VI implied immediate Roman retaliation for any suspicious activity, rendering Tigranes’ previous efforts worthless.
Despite the heavy losses, Tigranes had avoided complete destruction—a small consolation. He forced a smile and concluded the negotiation.
With Armenia’s surrender secured, Pompey turned his attention south. Many eastern regions remained outside Roman control: the Seleucid dynasty in Syria, Cyprus, Jerusalem in Judea, and the Nabataeans in Petra.
Pompey decided to incorporate these regions into Rome’s power without Senate approval. He had no intention of relinquishing his imperium, which he was now extending further.
Pompey’s dominance in the east was undeniable. Thanks to this, Marcus was able to make his influence felt across the region without interference.