Chapter 50: Pompey the Great (1)
Chapter 50: Pompey the Great (1)
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Pompey anticipated that the Senate would not easily accept his demands.
That’s why he had sent a letter through his spokesman, Gabinius, before he finished off the pirates.
Pompey’s popularity in Rome was at an all-time high.
Rome had also suffered from the pirates, though not as severely as Greece.
In particular, the equestrian class, who frequently traveled to the East, had incurred extra expenses due to pirate attacks.
Over the past two years, wheat prices had soared because of pirate interference.
Yet, Pompey resolved these issues in just 89 days.
Grain shipments to Rome returned to normal.
Those captured by the pirates were freed and returned home, having escaped a fate of slavery.
They spread the news of Pompey’s heroism far and wide.
Gabinius proudly announced Pompey’s achievements in the assembly:
“Thanks to the great Pompey, sailing in the Mediterranean is now completely safe. He captured over 400 pirate ships and personally sank more than 1,300! He destroyed all their bases, ensuring they can never sail again! But, dear citizens, why were the pirates able to run rampant? It was because the wicked Pontus king, Mithridates VI, supported them. Thus, a fundamental problem remains: the eradication of pirates is not complete until Mithridates is dealt with!”
“Kill Mithridates!”
“Dismiss the incompetent Lucullus and appoint Pompey as commander!”
When a war drags on, public enthusiasm inevitably wanes.
This was the third time Mithridates had declared war on Rome.
Lucullus had fought Mithridates for seven years, but Mithridates’ hostilities against Rome had stretched back to Sulla’s time, making it nearly 20 years in total.
The citizens were eager for someone to finish off Mithridates swiftly.
They had once pinned their hopes on Lucullus, but he had ultimately failed.
It was natural that Pompey, with his recent successes, attracted public support.
Cilicia, where Pompey was stationed, was adjacent to the Eastern provinces, allowing him to begin the campaign against Mithridates as soon as he was appointed commander.
Romans believed Pompey could achieve a decisive victory against Mithridates, just as he had with the pirates.
However, most senators opposed this idea, citing the usual reasons.
Terentius, Lucullus’ brother, strongly opposed the proposal:
“This Gabinius is Pompey’s lackey! You all know this by now. If we continue to accede to such demands, Pompey will only grow more disdainful of our Senate. He already looks down on us, no doubt about it!”
Senators who supported Terentius echoed his concerns, condemning Pompey’s arrogance.
Yet, this time, there was a senator who sided with Pompey: Caesar.
He welcomed the decline of the Senate’s authority with open arms.
“Ah, respected senators. If you calm down and consider it, Pompey’s proposal is not as absurd as it seems.”
“Not absurd? Pompey swore before the gods that he would disband his army once his mission was complete!”
“But he argues that his mission is not over yet. Pompey was given the authority to annihilate the pirates. And behind those pirates stands Mithridates VI. Therefore, defeating Mithridates is the true end of the campaign against the pirates, isn’t it?”
“Nonsense! Mithridates merely provided funding to the pirates!”
“That’s proof of his complicity. Moreover, continuing the Eastern war with Lucullus is unfeasible. We need to change the commander anyway. But if we appoint someone other than Pompey, do you think the citizens will tolerate it? And if that new commander fails to achieve results, who will take responsibility?”
Caesar looked pointedly at Terentius, as if to ask if he was willing to take on the responsibility.
Terentius had no response and quietly sat down. The other senators also avoided Caesar’s gaze, clearly showing their inability to offer valid opposition.
This scene starkly highlighted the incompetence of the current Senate.
Unable to remain silent, Cicero stepped in to mediate:
“Gentlemen, Pompey’s claim may be arrogant, but as Caesar said, it is reasonable. He also has the enthusiastic support of the citizens. The Senate has already granted Pompey significant authority. Therefore, it would be consistent to show our support boldly this time. Even if the Senate opposes, the Assembly can still pass it under Hortensius’ law.”
Despite Cicero’s practical advice, the senators remained resolute in their opposition, determined to resist until the end.
However, as Cicero anticipated, the Assembly passed the motion to dismiss Lucullus with overwhelming support. All 35 electoral districts voted in favor.
This time, even the equestrian class sided with the plebeians, largely because Lucullus had become estranged from them during his efforts to stabilize the Eastern provinces. The only supporters of Lucullus left in Rome were the Senate.
Seizing this opportunity, Gabinius pushed through another law.
This new law relaxed the age requirements for holding Roman offices. The age limit to run for quaestor was reduced from 30 to 25, and similar reductions applied to other offices. The minimum age for praetor was set precisely at 36, the age at which Pompey had first become a praetor.
Gabinius emphasized that anyone who had previously violated the age limit under unavoidable circumstances would be considered legal if they met this new criterion.
It was evident that this bill was tailored for Pompey.
Despite the Senate’s vehement opposition, their objections were ignored. All they could do was curse Pompey in their meetings.
With these changes, all reforms implemented by Sulla to strengthen the Senate were nullified or abolished.
Pompey gained the authority to extend his imperium as needed, covering the entire eastern provinces.
When Lucullus learned of his dismissal, he requested permission to hold a triumphal parade, which the Senate granted. Although he did not end the war, he had achieved significant victories. He was the first Roman to advance to the Caspian Sea and won several notable victories. He also amassed a large amount of gold, silver, and wealth from his invasions of Pontus and Armenia.
The Senate deemed his achievements sufficient for a triumphal parade. Additionally, there was hope that Lucullus, as Sulla’s disciple, would restrain Pompey upon his return.
It was a bitter pill, but it was the best the Senate could do at the moment.
※※※※
As soon as Pompey received news of his appointment as the commander of the East, he moved north from Cilicia.
Lucullus and Pompey had agreed to transfer their duties in Galatia, a region west of Bithynia.
Marcus accompanied Pompey as his lieutenant to the meeting between the two prominent figures.
“Will Lucullus be alright? He must be upset,” Marcus asked.
“What can he do about it? I’m the commander now. Honestly, I believe Lucullus’ legionaries would prefer me as their leader,” Pompey replied.
Pompey dismissed Lucullus, seeing him as a failure in managing his subordinates. While he had once considered Lucullus a formidable rival, he now regarded him with indifference.
“Still, isn’t Lucullus a senior figure to you? And you can’t deny that he’s an excellent tactician,” Marcus pointed out.
“That’s true. I’ll show him some courtesy, but nothing more than that,” Pompey said.
As they talked, a man approached with his army—a solemn middle-aged figure with a balding forehead, dressed in the crimson cloak reserved for the commander-in-chief. It was Lucullus.
Pompey greeted him with a smile and extended his arm. “It’s been a long time, my dear Lucullus. How many years has it been?”
Lucullus grasped Pompey’s arm and managed a stiff smile. “It’s been over seven years since we last met before I was sent to the East. I’ve heard of your remarkable achievements here. But who is this young man next to you?”
Marcus bowed politely and lowered his head in response to Lucullus’ gaze. “I’m Marcus Licinius Crassus II. I’m serving as Pompey’s lieutenant.”
“Oh, you’re Crassus’ son? I’ve heard that Crassus is very fond of his children.”
After a few more formal greetings, the atmosphere remained cordial. Despite Pompey’s personal opinions about Lucullus, he was a figure of significant stature—one of the Optimates, a former praetor, and a man scheduled to hold a triumphal parade for his war achievements. Even Pompey, twelve years his junior, had no intention of being disrespectful to his senior.
The handover of the provincial governorship began with the former governor passing his baton of command to the new one.
Pompey, receiving the baton from Lucullus, offered a warm compliment.
“Although you didn’t end the war, your achievements must have warmed the hearts of many Romans. Especially your tactics in defeating the Armenian army, which was over five times larger, will be an inspiration for future generations.”
“Thank you for the kind words. I also admired your brilliant strategy in the pirate eradication campaign. It was truly a feat worthy of Pompey, the master tactician.”
“Hahaha, you flatter me. It pales in comparison to your success against Pontus and Armenia. I’ll finish the rest with ease. Please return to Rome and wait comfortably for the follow-up report.”
Lucullus’ eyes twitched at the word ‘easily.’ It implied he was an incompetent general who couldn’t finish the task and was being replaced.
Unable to hide his irritation, Lucullus responded with a forced smile and a hint of sarcasm.
“I’m sure you will. Finishing what others have started is your specialty. It was the same with Sertorius’ rebellion and the slave revolt. You’ll handle this eastern campaign well too, given that I’ve already dealt with Pontus and Armenia thoroughly.”
Pompey’s forced smile vanished, replaced by a cold sneer. Accusations of stealing others' credit were a common attack from the Senate, though somewhat unfair.
Pompey had fought wars from start to finish more than once, including crushing the populares under Sulla and suppressing Lepidus' rebellion. While he had no excuse for his involvement in the slave revolt, Sertorius’ rebellion was a brutal conflict that might have continued indefinitely without Pompey's intervention. His handling of the pirate eradication campaign further demonstrated his capability.
Lucullus' frustration was understandable, but Pompey’s disdain was evident.
Pompey discarded his courtesy and countered with a sharp retort.
“Ha! Why would I settle for cleaning up others’ leftovers? It’s because the Senate’s incompetent generals couldn’t end the war and had to ask for my help, just like you, Lucullus!”
“What?”
“Am I wrong? How greedy were you that your subordinates not only refused to serve but went on indefinite strike? If it were me, I would have won their loyalty with ample rewards from the start. How can someone who can’t earn their subordinates' trust call themselves an imperator?”
Lucullus’ face reddened as Pompey’s words hit their mark. Pompey didn’t stop there.
“How shameless to hold a triumphal parade when you couldn’t finish a seven-year war. If it were me, I would have apologized to the citizens instead of celebrating. You advanced to the Caspian Sea for the first time as a Roman but retreated due to setbacks. It’s almost like tarnishing Rome’s honor. And you want a triumph? How dare you…”
Marcus signaled Pompey to stop, as his criticism became increasingly harsh. Only then did Lucullus, shaking with anger, interrupt Pompey.
Despite the severity of his words, Pompey felt no remorse, only a restrained sense of satisfaction, partly due to Marcus’ presence.
“Hmm, anyway, I’m the governor of this region now. If you’re done with the handover, return to Rome immediately.”
“I’ll go back even without your prompting. And you know you need to provide the soldiers who will accompany me for my triumph, right?”
A triumph required soldiers who had marched with the imperator. Aware of this, Pompey regarded Lucullus with a sour expression but soon devised a solution and agreed to provide them.
“Of course. You can’t have a triumph without soldiers. I’ll give you about fifteen hundred. Take them.”
“At least you have some decency. I’ll leave as soon as I’m ready.”
Lucullus, seething with frustration, departed without a word of farewell.
Marcus, watching him go, shook his head.
“Are you sure you’re okay? You seem emotionally drained.”
“Hmph, he won’t be in the spotlight of history any longer. Why worry? He’ll return to Rome and enjoy the luxury he’s amassed from the East.”
“You’re being quite cold-hearted.”
“You’ll come to understand eventually. People will use you no matter how much they profess to like you. You probably already know that as a successful businessman, but politics is even worse.”
Marcus agreed with Pompey’s sentiment but disagreed with his approach. In politics, it’s usually better to conceal your disdain for someone, even if you despise them.
One should hide their animosity behind a friendly facade, and when dealing with someone, do so decisively and thoroughly, leaving no room for retaliation.
Pompey’s method of openly humiliating his opponents would only breed resentment.
“If only his political skills matched his military prowess, the course of Roman history might have changed.”
Marcus felt a twinge of pity for Pompey but watched as Pompey smiled coldly, anticipating Lucullus’ reaction.
※※※※
At the port, Lucullus prepared to return to Rome and saw the soldiers Pompey had promised him.
The ranks appeared to be more than fifteen hundred, as Pompey had stated. This was enough to salvage some dignity.
However, as Lucullus examined the soldiers more closely, his relief turned to rage.
“Pompey, that son of a bitch…”
The soldiers were retired veterans and those who were injured and unable to fight. Pompey had deliberately chosen soldiers who had clashed with Lucullus and sent them to accompany him home.
A wave of humiliation, the likes of which Lucullus had never felt before, washed over him.
“How dare he treat me like this… me, Lucius Licinius Lucullus?”
Despite his failure to end the war, Lucullus’ influence was significant. As Marcus had anticipated, Pompey’s action would cause more harm than good, but Pompey was indifferent to the consequences.
Pompey was a man who had never known failure from his youth until now. He believed he could overcome any obstacle with ease and acted without hesitation.
The future that Lucullus and the Senate might plan for him was irrelevant to Pompey. His focus was solely on Pontus and Armenia.
The time had come for the eastern monarchs who had long tormented Rome to face the formidable challenge of Pompey.
After assuming command of the eastern front from Lucullus, Pompey began reorganizing his legions. Although he would have preferred to use the 20 legions from his pirate campaign, Senate opposition made this impossible. The Senate’s objections had forced him to reduce his allowed troops by half.
Pompey’s new force to pacify the east consisted of 10 legions and 270 ships—a massive army of over 60,000 men. This was double the size of the force Lucullus had commanded against Mithridates and Tigranes.
News quickly spread that Pompey had deployed 10 legions to the front, causing anxiety for Mithridates and Tigranes, who had previously been defeated by Lucullus. Despite this, Pompey’s movements were unhurried, a stark contrast to his usual emphasis on speed.
As there were no signs of immediate action, Marcus, having heard that the army would not be mobilized this year, requested and received permission to visit Bithynia.
Upon arriving in Bithynia, Marcus sought out Tadius, who was diligently expanding his business and following orders. Marcus was directed to a clean annex where Tadius was working, surrounded by a significant amount of documents.
Tadius, having witnessed Marcus’s abilities during the grain speculation and his accurate prediction of the pirate campaign’s swift end, viewed Marcus with a mix of awe and reverence. He believed Marcus was favored by the gods due to his remarkable successes.
Tadius greeted Marcus with the deference of a servant to a king. “You have arrived. I have been waiting for you.”
“Good. How is the work I requested progressing?” Marcus asked.
“Of course. I am currently recruiting knights from the eastern provinces and building a trade network. However, since you instructed me not to disclose my connection with the Crassus family, progress has been slower than anticipated. It would have been easier if I could use their clients, but I am following your orders…”
“You’ve done well. It’s wise not to appear too closely associated with me. There might be scrutiny due to the grain speculation, and other matters will arise in the future.”
Despite being cautious, Tadius had attracted attention once he began purchasing large quantities of grain.
Julia was the only person who might discern Tadius's connection to Marcus, but he knew he had to remain cautious.
“But shouldn’t you be careful about meeting me like this?” Marcus asked.
“It’s fine to meet like this,” Tadius replied. “Many prominent merchants in Rome have connections with me. As long as it stays hidden that I’m supporting you, there shouldn’t be any problem.”
“Understood. By the way, I’ve also contacted the Parthian merchant you mentioned. The silk he showed me was incredibly soft and luxurious. I believe it could be a lucrative venture if I bring it to Rome.”
“Exactly. Although the Parthians take a hefty cut, making the price steep, the Roman nobility will still pay top dollar.”
Silk was not widely known in Rome for another decade. It was Caesar, with his vanity and concern for appearance, who popularized it.
Even then, Parthia maintained a high price by blocking trade between Rome and China. For Parthia, this was an opportunity for substantial profit from intermediary trade.
Silk, which caused a frenzy in Rome, was rumored to cost more than a horse per yard. Marcus aimed to bring this silk to Rome while forging ties with Parthia. However, selling silk was secondary to his real goal: establishing connections with Parthian high-ranking nobles.
Parthia, a powerful nation claiming descent from Persia, was a significant player. In history, Crassus's Roman legion faced near annihilation by Parthia, resulting in the deaths of Crassus and his second son, Publius. Marcus was determined to prevent such a future.
Parthia and Rome had several conflicts, but Rome never fully subdued Parthia. The main reasons were Rome’s inability to maintain long supply lines and Parthia’s persistent resistance—challenges that could not be resolved quickly.
Marcus knew he needed to invest time to address these issues gradually. He leaned in and spoke quietly to Tadius.
“There is a prince named Mithridates III among the sons of the current Parthian king, Phraates III. He is violent, impatient, and ill-tempered. Reach out to the nobles connected to him. Don’t rush; aim to get results within five years.”
“It will be challenging to build relationships with nobles close to the royal family, but five years seems feasible. I will do my best,” Tadius assured him.
King Phraates III of Parthia had two sons: Orodes II and Mithridates III. Mithridates III was not to be confused with Mithridates VI of Pontus, who was at war with Rome.
Marcus intended to exploit the subtle power struggles among the Parthian princes. Although the full impact would be felt in the distant future, he aimed to sow the seeds of conflict early, so they could be harvested when the time was right.
He recalled Pompey’s lesson: battles are merely a way to confirm the outcome of wars. Marcus planned to apply this wisdom diligently.
Marcus needed to ensure a 90 percent chance of victory before going to war. He meticulously reviewed a vast amount of data, assessing all possible variables. His long-term vision and exceptional judgment were pushed to their limits.
Pompey took his time but remained committed to his strategy of ensuring victory before engaging in battle.
He didn’t just focus on defeating Mithridates; he knew that a hasty victory would allow Mithridates to recover as he had done before. Pompey aimed to eliminate Mithridates’s ability to retaliate once and for all.
To achieve this, Pompey focused on preparations in the rear. He began by releasing the pirate slaves he had captured. Although many of the prisoners had already been executed or were of poor quality, over 20,000 remained. Most of these individuals had become pirates after losing their families and lands in the eastern conflicts.
A stable rear was crucial for maintaining the strength of the legions. Fortunately, Asia Minor was not a land of barbarians but a region with fertile soil and abundant resources, though many cities had been devastated by war.
Pompey provided land to the prisoners, allowing them a chance to rebuild their lives. He encouraged them to abandon their violent past and settle into their new homes.
The prisoners, moved by his kindness, vowed loyalty and worked hard to restore their new communities. Pompey also successfully completed the stabilization of the provinces that Lucullus had failed to secure. He used the knight class effectively to ensure stable tax collection, with Marcus, a representative of the knight class, making the process smoother.
Despite some skepticism from his legionnaires about the delay, Pompey remained confident.
“They might recover slightly, but taking our time will ultimately benefit us more than them.”
Mithridates, who had been driven away by Lucullus, had managed to return to Pontus and reclaim some of his territory. His subordinates feared that he might fully restore his power if given more time. However, Pompey was aware of the situation in Pontus. While Mithridates had regained his lands, he could not quickly replenish his lost troops.
Pompey did not create unnecessary drama or underestimate his enemy.
By the end of spring in 66 BC, Pompey had completed all preparations for his advance and secured his rear. Once fully equipped, he struck swiftly and decisively.
Pompey led his ten legions straight into the Kingdom of Pontus. Mithridates, caught off guard by the suddenness of the attack, was unprepared for such a rapid assault.
The Roman army, advancing like a tidal wave, overwhelmed the small defensive forces of Pontus and approached the capital city.
“Counterattack! Assemble all our troops!” Mithridates ordered.
Mithridates did not simply surrender. Although he could not expect reinforcements from Armenia due to the speed of the Roman advance, he mobilized his considerable resources and assembled a force of over 30,000 men. He concentrated his troops in the capital, planning to hold out until the Armenian reinforcements arrived.
Pompey, however, dismissed Mithridates’s strategy and launched a full-scale assault. The cities of Pontus quickly fell to the Roman army. Moreover, news arrived that the Armenian reinforcements would be delayed.
With no other options, Mithridates decided to confront Pompey with his 30,000 men. This was a bold but reckless move. Mithridates had been defeated by Lucullus even with a larger force, and Pompey commanded double the number of troops Lucullus had.
Mithridates had hoped to strike at Pompey’s main force before the Roman army could regroup. However, Pompey anticipated this move.
“When they become anxious, their vision narrows and they make rash decisions,” Pompey observed with a cold smile, watching the Pontus army camp from a distance.
Pompey had deliberately left one legion out of the fight to restrict Mithridates’s escape routes. With nine legions at his command, the outcome of the battle was effectively sealed as soon as Mithridates led his army onto the battlefield.
“The famed chariots of Pontus are barely in sight,” Pompey noted.
The composition of the Pontus army was inadequate from the start. Traditionally, Hellenistic kingdoms fielded large numbers of elite troops thanks to their wealth. However, Mithridates’s army was primarily composed of infantry and lightly armed cavalry, with only a few cataphracts—heavy cavalry that posed little threat to Pompey.
He joked with Marcus, who was observing the situation alongside him.
“I wanted to show you the stirrups your father developed. This will be a perfect demonstration.”
“Are you planning to engage in a cavalry battle with them? Cataphracts are formidable opponents.”
“That’s true in a direct confrontation. But there’s a well-established method for dealing with Hellenistic heavy cavalry. Sticking to outdated tactics is always a mistake.”
Bang! Crash!
The loud noise of the ballistas firing signaled the start of the battle. While the ballistas were not extremely accurate, they were effective enough to make the enemy hesitate.
No matter how formidable the cataphracts were, they could not charge through the barrage of scorpions and ballista bolts. Additionally, the Roman army had scattered iron spikes across the ground to hinder the cavalry’s approach.
Mithridates, however, was not ignorant of military tactics. He had no intention of repeating the same strategies that had failed against Sulla and Lucullus.
“Cavalry, flank the enemy and strike them hard! Infantry, hold the front line until the cavalry breaks through!” he ordered.
After enduring defeats for decades, Mithridates had inevitably absorbed some of his enemies' tactics. He adopted a modified version of the hammer and anvil tactic, which the Romans frequently used. This tactic had its origins with the Hellenistic kingdoms and was perfected by Alexander the Great of Macedonia.
While the Hellenistic kingdoms were the original developers of this tactic, the Romans had refined it significantly after Hannibal’s time. Mithridates had learned from his repeated defeats and decided to employ a similar strategy, convinced that his cavalry was superior to the Roman forces, despite their formidable legionaries.
This proved to be a grave miscalculation. Pompey anticipated Mithridates’ plan and positioned his cavalry on the flanks, equipped with stirrups.
The Pontic cataphracts, despite their fierce charges, were slowed by the Roman cavalry’s intermittent attacks. This was a significant difference between Pompey’s army and Lucullus’s. After adopting stirrups, the Roman army had rigorously trained their cavalry. The light cavalry maintained a stable posture and fired accurate shots, while the other cavalry fought more effectively from horseback.
Marcus had concealed information and prevented the development of heavy cavalry equipped with couch lances, but this was not a problem. Instead, the Romans significantly increased their use of archers, a unit that had not been prominently featured in their army before.
While the bow was not central to the Roman military tradition, Pompey recognized its potential value, especially with the advent of stirrups. He imported a type of composite bow from Syria, which greatly enhanced its range and power. With this increase in cavalry and archery capabilities, the strength of the Roman army had nearly doubled.
“What is this? Why can’t we break through the Roman cavalry? And those archers—when did they have such a large force of them?” Mithridates exclaimed in confusion. His elite troops, intended to serve as the hammer in the hammer-and-anvil tactic, were failing to deliver.
Initially, Mithridates had underestimated the Roman cavalry, but they proved to be anything but mediocre. Under Pompey’s leadership, the cavalry was more formidable than he had anticipated, rivaling even the Parthian cavalry. Additionally, Mithridates’ central force, which was supposed to act as the anvil, was quickly overwhelmed by the Roman onslaught.
Notably, Spartacus' unit in the white cohort performed exceptionally well, further exploiting weaknesses in the Pontic line. As a gap opened on one side of the front line, the Pontic army began to disintegrate rapidly.
The hammer-and-anvil tactic relies on the anvil holding steady while the hammer-like cavalry attacks the enemy’s rear. However, with the anvil breached and the hammer neutralized, the Pontic army was left unable to mount an effective counterattack.
The Pontic forces fell into disarray, fleeing with minimal resistance, and their slow-moving infantry were trapped and encircled by the Romans. Mithridates had no choice but to retreat, witnessing the slaughter of his troops with growing despair.
“Rome… Rome… what a cursed name!” Mithridates muttered. He felt helpless, losing despite every effort and strategy. If not for the presence of his subordinates, he might have been driven to tear his hair out in frustration.
Despite his overwhelming sense of defeat, Mithridates refused to give up. He had faced and overcome setbacks before, and he resolved to do so again.
At that moment, amidst his retreat, Mithridates glimpsed Pompey’s dignified figure draped in a scarlet cloak. Despite the distance, Mithridates could clearly see Pompey’s indifferent expression, which seemed to regard victory as a matter of course.
This sight filled Mithridates with an unsettling sense of dread. He felt an ominous premonition that things might not turn out well this time, a stark contrast to his previous experiences. The anxiety churned in his chest.